Heroism in Irish Literature [Part 1]
INTRODUCTION
European literature as a medium of artistic expression originates with the Ancient Greek epics of The Iliad and The Odyssey, yet unfortunately these texts often overshadow the rich literary traditions of small nations like Ireland, which are uniquely comparable to the Greek Epics. Within the aforementioned Greek texts is communicated one of the most ancient conceptions of heroism in Europe, with a wealth of intriguing characters, whose lives reflect upon the reader an image of the heroic virtues and traditions of Ancient Greek society. Literature can then be understood to function not just as a source of amusement, but also as a vehicle for the preservation of a nation’s culture and identity.
This is perhaps most evident in the Irish example; today the Irish nation is largely disconnected from its Gaelic roots, but fortunately its culture has been conserved in essence by the monastic Irish literary tradition. The fruits of such efforts have, despite all adversity, preserved over three-hundred texts out of an estimated several thousand medieval Irish manuscripts.1 Most fortunately is that among these texts are some of Ireland’s chief literary products, including Acallam na Senórach, An Táin Bó Cúailnge and An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann.
The depiction of heroism in Medieval Irish texts can be identified as analogous to that of Ancient Greece through the peculiar manner by which both nations heroes seek the immortalisation of their deeds. Despite this commonality between the Irish and Greek epics, the motivations behind heroism in each society arise from different sources and thus manifest results unique to their respective cultures, such as the Irish emphasis of the Dindsenchas place naming tradition and the Greek belief in an apotheosis achieved through heroism.
Irish literature is comparable to the antiquity of Greek society, not only through the codified oral tradition of pre-Christian Ireland, but also the admirable creation of An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann, in which is explicated, a history of Ireland dating from the creation of the world to the arrival of the Gaels. As such, this text grants Ireland a claim to historicity that while strenuous in physical evidence, became a deep-rooted aspect of the developing self-conception of Irish identity throughout the Middle Ages.
Even should one consider the events of An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann to be fictional, the inception of Irish history in Medieval times is inextricably linked to its contents, thus the relevance as to the truthfulness of events in texts such as AnLeabhar Gabhála Éireann or The Iliad, can be considered irrelevant given their importance to their respective societies’ identity and history.
This essay intends to analyse the depiction of heroism throughout Irish literature and its comparison to other European epics, namely Beowulf, The Iliad and The Aeneid, as these texts are generally considered to be the ‘national epics’ of their respective cultures. The depiction of heroism in each of these texts includes a cultural distinction that alters the perception of heroism in a culture’s national literature. Therefore, it is important to distinguish the different kinds of heroism in each European literatures, so that the differences and similarities in the concept of heroism contained therein may be analysed.
Gaelic literature maintains an important place in the perception of Gaelic Ireland, as by preserving national culture and history in such texts, the distinguishing factors that separate the Irish from other European peoples become self-evident. The significance of the Irish claim to antiquity, has, in the popular perception of Irish history, seen historians such as J. P. Mallory, communicate the idea of an ‘Irish dreamtime’ that is conceptually derived from the traditions of Australian Aboriginals.
As explicated in the following passage, the concept is an appealing one through its affirmation of a perennial perception of Irish heritage and Gaelic literature supported by the events of An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann: “The account of the colonisations of Ireland describes not only the sequence of successful and unsuccessful attempts at settlement but also the making of the Irish landscape, the formation of its major rivers and lakes. It describes how kings and heroes introduced innovations to Irish culture, cleared forests, established fortifications and developed new symbols of power, wealth and technology. And once the land was fully settled by populations directly ancestral to the present population of Ireland (c. 1700 BC), manuscripts relate the events surrounding the reigns of kings whose dates can be determined to the precise year extending from what other nations would describe as deep prehistory to the 12th century AD. In short, the Irish possess a written account of their Dreamtime.”2
However, the proposition of the Irish dreamtime runs into a significant hurdle when compared to the actual beliefs of the Aboriginals, as while superficially comparable, these two cultures are at a foundational level constructed upon different systems of beliefs and therefore cultivated distinct cultural practices. Aboriginals, by living in nomadic societies, formed a nature-oriented system of pagan folk culture, in which it was believed that the land was occupied by the spirits of their ancestors–thus imposing upon them a duty of care for their natural habitats.
The distinctive traits of Irish culture are demonstrable through the characterisation of heroism in Irish literature, in which the hills and fields of the Irish landscape are consecrated by heroic feats achieved on the battlefield, a tradition that is manifest in the aforementioned Dindsenchas place-naming tradition of Gaelic Ireland. Consequently, the idea of an Irish dreamtime is undermined at the conceptual level, as through the dissimilarities between the fundamental traits of the land-spirit ancestor worship form of the Aboriginal dreamtime and the heroic spirit of Irish folklore in its depiction of the making of Ireland; it may be concluded that to the Aboriginals their culture was a static entity that remained unchanged, for the Gael, his culture was not merely an inheritance to solely be preserved, but something to build upon with ever greater achievements.
This characterisation of Gaelic heroism consequently prompts the question: what is the relevance of heroism in European literature, and more specifically in Irish literature, to contemporary nationalists? This question will be discussed throughout this essay as a peripheral contextualisation of the necessity of understanding the literary products of a nation and the cultural values they engender.
When discussing the traits of European literature and the different types of heroism depicted therein, it must be prefaced as to what literary forms are most common and most significant. Poetry was traditionally the primary medium for grand European cultural products, with almost all texts lauded by scholars as ‘national epics’ being of this category, whether it be the aforementioned texts or The Niebelungenlied and The Song of Roland; even the greatest of modern prose literature draws its inspiration from poetic literary devices and techniques.
The common thread between these texts is that they are all representative of the most significant times in the national history of their host cultures, consequently they are an embodiment of national pride in their depictions of cultural beliefs. Hence, the label of ‘national epic’ is solely reserved for texts of essential understanding should one wish to comprehend the culture and identity of a nation.
However, with the predominant American cultural zeitgeist throughout Western Europe, it is undeniable that the cultural expression of European nations has been degraded and hindered not only the by dissolution of native European nationalities, but through the change induced by a malignant process of Americanisation. Thus, it is of no surprise that throughout the late 20th century and early twenty-first century, no literary text has either achieved the technical character to be worthy of the title of ‘national epic’, nor the vast cultural recognition required to integrate a text within a national identity.
The significance of literary works to rebirth nationalist movements is exemplified through the association of medieval Gaelic literature with modern Irish nationalists or the Greek and Italian identification with the Classical world. The concept of the national epic will be later discussed in this essay as being the cumulative literary product of a culture in its most pure form, with specific reference to the wealth of Irish literary produce, so that the following question may be answered: if the depiction of heroism in Irish literature is indicative of its culture and identity, then which of the aforementioned texts can be considered as the Irish national epic?
TYPES OF HEROISM IN EUROPEAN LITERATURE
Heroism in European literature is usually characterised by the triumph over adversity or, in the tragic genre, a lament or celebration of defeat in face of adversity. The multifaceted traits of European literature make it difficult to generalise its literary character, however, in the school of heroism a clear distinction can be made between two different kinds of hero–the priestly type and the warrior type.
The standard warrior-based form of European heroism is exemplified by the characters of Fionn Mac Cumhaill, CúChulainn, Beowulf and Achilles, whom all achieve their honour and glory primarily through battle. Such an idea is in contrast to the peculiar and arguably more grandiose nature of the priestly heroism of Aeneas and Saint Patrick. Priestly heroism may be characterised as being of greater importance to the establishment of a national mythos, given their permeating influence throughout a nation. This is in contradistinction to men of the warrior caste, whose heroic deeds become integrated into a national identity, but are not its genesis, they are merely chronological or peripheral clarifications that come to fruition within a pre-existing social framework.
VALOROUS HEROISM
The Greek perception of heroism is best surmised by Ricardo Duchesne’s analysis of the consciousness and intent of the characters of The Iliad, concluding that heroism was pursued as noble goal for the sake of glory and honour, that the heroes themselves might be immortalised by their deeds and their accumulation of sufficient glory. The dichotomy faced by the Greek heroes is exemplified by Achilles, who “imagines himself dying as a young man in a blaze of glory or living a long and obscure life. All the heroes come to the same fatal decision and this decision in this sense seems predetermined. Nevertheless, this is a culture in which men have decided to strive for heroism and immortality rather than give way to the appetitive instinct for comfort, or to the fear of death. It is not that they have fatalistically chosen a short life but that they understand that violence and a shorter life are an inescapable reality of a heroic life in their world.”3The heroic way of life was an active choice for the Ancient Greek heroes, who would sacrifice their transient mortality in favour of an immortality achieved through valorous deed.
The depiction of Cú Chulainn’s heroism throughout An Táin Bó Cúailnge is one reminiscent of the Greek, in the sense that the Irish place naming tradition preserves the impact of heroism on the landscape. All characters, regardless of significance to the plot, receive their acknowledgement and are capable of great feats that may immortalise them in the Irish landscape. When crossing a strong river current on the battlefield, a character otherwise irrelevant to the narrative of An Táin Bó Cúailnge, is immortalised in his death, despite his failure, even his attempt at achieving a grand feat sees his deeds immortalised: “The next morning a hero attempted it. His name was Úalu. He shouldered a great flagstone to steady him against the current. The river upended him, stone and all. His grave and stone are still there on the roadside by the river. They call it Lia Úalann, Úalu’s Standing Stone.”4
Such significant impact on the Gaelic terrain, as demonstrated in the death of the Donn Cúailnge, reaffirms the extensive integration of momentous events into the Irish national subconsciousness through the remembrance afforded to it by the Dindsenchas tradition. The following passage demonstrates that even the brutal battle between ferocious animals like the Donn Cúailnge and the white bull Finnbennach, are worthy of commemoration.
“The bulls fought for a long time. Night fell upon the men of Ireland and they could do nothing but listen to the bulls roaring and bellowing in the darkness. All next day the Donn Cúailnge drove Finnbennach before him and at nightfall they plunged into the lake at Crúachan. He emerged with Finnbenach’s loins and shoulder blade and live on his horns. The army went to kill him but Fergus stopped them, saying he should be let roam. So, the bull headed for his homeland. He stopped on the way to drink at Finnleithe, where he left Finnbennach’s shoulder blade. Hence the name Finnleithe, White Shoulder. He drank again at Áth Luain, and left Finnbennach’s loins there. Hence the name Áth Luain, the Ford of the Loins. At Iraird Cuillenn he let a great bellow out of him that was heard all over the province. He drank again at Tromma, where Finnbennach’s liver fell from his horns. Hence the name Tromma, Liver. He went then to Éten Tairb, where he rested his brown against the hill. Hence the name Éten Tairb, the Bull’s Brow, in Muirthemne Plain. Then he went by the Midluachair Road to Cuib, where he used to dwell with the dry cows of Dáire, and he tore up the ground there. Hence the name Gort mBúraig, Trench Field. Then he went on and fell dead at the ridge between Ulster and Uí Echach. That place is now called Druim Tairb, Bull Ridge.”5
The mythicism that permeates the battlefield, whether it be through the deeds of humans, gods or animals, in Gaelic tradition appears to be one of the defining traits of the Irish literary tradition, as all feats of grandeur are subconsciously preserved in the popular consciousness of Gaelic Ireland.
Such a trend suggests that the Gael’s active mythicising of the Irish landscape, continually building upon its history, was a contributory factor in Medieval Ireland’s self-perception of its culture. Heroism was seen as not only a noble virtue through loyalty to provincial Kings and communities, but its consequences were commemorated within the national consciousness, regardless of whether they were of sombre or triumphant occasion. Hence the Greek glory focused immortalisation of heroes by extravagant feats of battle is comparable to the Irish concept of historicising heroism in the landscape.
The Germanic depiction of heroism in Beowulf of a literary archetype that, while novel in of itself, has become cliched and exhausted by a series of hapless imitations. Today the tale of Beowulf, with all its charm and character, is polluted by pale modern imitations due to the popular appeal of Germanic storytelling. The virtue of battle-based heroism is affirmed through the text’s wealth of emphasis on the acquisition of honour expected of soldiers in Germanic society and their personal desires to fulfil such obligations. To the men of Beowulf’s Germanic society, the reward for heroism was both expected and unexpected; it was “to be repaid with a generosity that transcends mere logic” through “the King, who would not enter his treasury and count out what he deems to be a suitable reward for service in coin, but would snap off gold from the very torque on his arm as a gift, in a spontaneous display of gratitude.”6 This bizarre notion of recompense and appreciation is to be contrasted with the more standard form of motivation behind Beowulf’s actions in the text.
“Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow:
Sorrow not, sage! It beseems us better
Friends to avenge than fruitlessly mourn them.
Each of us all must his end abide
In the ways of the world; so, win who may
Glory ere death! When his days are told,
That is the warrior’s worthiest doom.
Rise, O realm-warder! Ride we anon,
And mark the trail of the mother of Grendel.
No harbour shall hide her–heed my promise! –
Enfolding of field or forested mountain
Or the floor of the flood, let her flee where she will!
But thou this day endure in patience,
As I ween thou wilt, thy woes each one.”7
The use of natural imagery in the above passage is in reality a peculiar trend throughout Beowulf, given the Germanic emphasis on dialogue and exposition, but here it is purposely employed to evoke a sensation of remoteness in setting. The use of such a literary device emphasises the fear of the unknown and contextualises the threat that Grendel and his mother pose to the Geats and the Danes. The above passage serves as an example of standard heroic action, demanding perseverance in the face of adversity, as Beowulf encourages his comrades to pursue Grendel’s mother to the ends of the earth. The perception of heroism in Germanic societies is suggested to then be one of honour and duty to one’s comrades, whilst lamenting their deaths and incessantly seeking to avenge their sacrifices.
Priestly Heroism
Beowulf, in its permeating miasma of uncertainty and the unreliable fate of its characters, is a direct contrast to Virgil’s Aeneid, in which the destiny of Aeneas is consciously communicated to him by the Gods. Beowulf’s fate is something uncertain throughout the entirety of the text, whether it be his gruelling battles between Grendel’s mother or the dragon, at any time misfortune could manifest itself.
The fate of Aeneas differs in this manner as, despite his trials and tribulations, there is an element of foresight to his journey, through his journey to meet his father Anchises in the underworld or the assistance given to him by the gods. Aeneas’ destiny is yet to be achieved–and as such he receives glory in his commitment to its manifestation.
“Then he addressed Mercury, entrusting to him this errand: –Go quick, my son, whistle up the Zephyrs and wing your way
Down to the Trojan leader, who is dallying now in Carthage
Without one thought for the city which fate has assigned to be his.
Carry my dictate along the hastening winds and tell him,
Not for such ways did his matchless mother guarantee him
To us, nor for such ends rescue him twice from the Greeks;
Rather, that he should rule an Italy fertile in leadership
And loud with war, should hand on a line which sprang from the noble
Eeucer and bring the whole word under a system of law.
If the glory of such great exploits no longer fires his heart
And for his own renown he will make no effort at all,
Does he grudge his son, Ascanius, the glory of Rome to be?
What aim, what hope does he cherish, delaying there in a hostile
Land, with no thought for posterity or his Italian kingdom?”8
Aeneas, despite the distractions of Dido and other opportune settlements, is spurred onwards by the Gods, and thus reminded that he is destined to establish in Italy a city more grandiose than Troy itself. Aeneas’ conscious fulfilment of this destiny represents the distinction between Latin and Germanic culture in its conception of fate and its relation to heroism. Beowulf is a hero because of his nobility in face of adversity and triumphant victories over monsters, by which he defends his people; Aeneas is a hero through his eventual abandonment of all concerns and opportunities that may impede his destiny, such as his love for Dido or failed attempt at settlement outside of Italy. It is Aeneas determination to reach the Lavinian shores and the achievement of his destiny that saw his glorification throughout Roman society.
Aeneas is of important note to the archetypal distinction of heroes, as his role in the founding of Rome can be considered to have functioned in Roman society in the same manner that Saint Patrick’s evangelising of Ireland was interpreted by Medieval Irish writers. The idea of a founder-myth is embodied in The Aeneid by definition, through Aeneas’ fate and its initiation of Roman history. Simultaneously the Aeneid serves to link the glory of Troy to the already prestigious Roman Empire, a trend analogous to that of the early Medieval Irish adoption of Christianity and its synthesis of the Christian faith with an esteemed Gaelic folklore.
Such a phenomenon is undoubtedly present in various cultures, with the following passage from The Ancient City, being of particular relevance to the national conception of identity and the roles. Fustel de Coulanges said of Aeneas and the Roman founding mythos that: “The founder was the man who accomplished the religious act without which a city could not exist, he established the hearth where the sacred fire was eternally to burn. He it was who, by his prayers and his rites, called the gods, and fixed them forever in the new city. We can understand how much respect would be felt for this holy man. During his life men saw him the author of a religion and the father of a city; after death he became a common ancestor for all the generation that succeeded him. He was for the city what the first ancestor was for the family – a Lar familiaris [“household god”, “spirit of the family”]. His memory was perpetuated like the hearth-fire which he had lighted.”9 The role of a hieratic figure in propagating his rendition of the national life of a people is evident not only in the Medieval Irish perception of Saint Patrick, but may also be applied in extension to the idealisation of Pádraig Pearse by contemporary Irish nationalists.
With the comparison of Saint Patrick and Aeneas it can be identified that the clerical hero serves as a founding figure in his culture. For the Romans, Aeneas' flight from Troy and journey to Italy were essential to their founding mythology, even coming to displace the significance of the tale of Romulus and Reumus. Such a case similarly arrives in Irish society with the arrival of Saint Patrick. Hrer, rather than displacing prior notions of Irish history and identity, a process of synthesisation had begun instead, culminating with An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann and the integration of Christianity into Gaelic folklore and traditions.
By acting as the founder of the modern Irish nation in its traditions, religion and culture, the character of Saint Patrick is essential prerequisite knowledge for an analysis of his role in Acallam na Senórach. The characterisation of Saint Patrick throughout the text is one of priestly nobility which sees the Kings of Ireland and the Fían converted to Christianity, thus Patrick’s blessing of Caílte’s Fenian Lays and the decree of the angels to “have these stories written down on poets’ tablets in refined language, so that the hearing of them will provide entertainment for the lords and commons of later times”10 facilitated the coalescence of old Irish mythology and Christianity, thereby developing the Medieval conception of Irish nationality.
As a consequence, Medieval Irish literature is essential for understanding the ever-developing notion of the Irish national idea and is a resource to look back on for contemporary nationalists as to the ideals of Gaelic society and how they may best be fitted to the twenty-first century.
“St. Patrick (Patricius the son of Calpurnius, called in modern Irish Pádraic MacCalpruinn) always must remain the greatest figure in Irish history. He stands in the mind of the race as a Moses, a prophet, a lawgiver; and tradition agrees perfectly with historic fact. The national apostle, while he triumphed as a missionary, left an indelible mark on the civilization, language and literature of the nation.”11
The impact of Saint Patrick’s priestly heroism is communicated through the Fenian Cycle and specifically, throughout Acallam na Senórach, in which St. Patrick is accompanied by a band of Fían on his evangelising journey across Ireland. Even the Irish Dindsenchas tradition is invoked throughout his journey, seeing the renaming of the Irish landscape in accordance with Patrick’s journey and thus honouring his services to the refoundation of Irish identity: “Patrick sat down in his chair, and that place on the Ballyhowra Mountains has since been called the Seat of Patrick [Ardpatrick].”12 Such a tradition has remarkably maintained its impact on parts of the modern Irish landscape, with the Ballyhoura Mountains referred to in the above passage encompassing a small village of the name Ardpatrick.
McGlynn, M., 2022. Just 300 out of thousands of medieval Irish-language manuscripts still exist. Irish Examiner. Available at: https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-40810830.html
Mallory, J., 2016. In search of the Irish dreamtime. New York: Thames & Hudson, pp.1-2.
Duchesne, R. and Bryant, W., 2019. Iliad. 1st ed. Perth: Imperium Press, p. XXXIII.
Carson, C., 2008. The Táin. Penguin Books, p.59.
Carson, C., 2008. The Táin. Penguin Books, pp.207-208.
Gummere, F. and Maclear, A., 2021. Beowulf. 1st ed. Perth: Imperium Press, p. XI.
Ibid. p.155.
Day Lewis, C., 1986. The Aeneid. Oxford University Press, pp.98-99.
Fustel De Coulanges, N., 2020. The Ancient City. 1st ed. Perth: Imperium Press, p.114.
Dooley, A. and Roe, H., 2008. Acallam na Senórach. Oxford University Press, p.12.
de Blácam, A., n.d. A First Book of Irish Literature. Dublin and Cork: Talbot Press, p.7.
Dooley, A. and Roe, H., 2008. Acallam na Senórach. Oxford University Press, p.29.