Heroism in Irish Literature [Part 2]
Cultural Significance of Heroism in Literature
Heroism and the direct impact on the land. The seamless transition from Paganism to Christianity was a natural development in Irish society at the time. Such is evidenced by the actions of Saint Patrick and the blessing of Ireland's pre-Christian folklore and mythology. Further scholarly research has been done into the Christianisation of Ireland by Eoin MacNeill, who concluded that despite Saint Patrick’s importance to the modern Irish nation;
“the conversion of Ireland to Christianity did not begin with Saint Patrick, so also he did not live to complete it. To say this is not to belittle his work or to deprive him of the honour that has been accorded to him by every generation of Irishmen since his death. No one man has ever left so strong and permanent impression of his personality on a people, with the single and eminent exception of Moses, the deliverer and lawgiver of Israel. It is curious to note that the comparison between these two men was present to the minds of our forefathers. Both had lived in captivity. Both had led the people from bondage. Some of the legends of St. Patrick were perhaps based on this comparison, especially the account of his competition with the Druids…There are various things that indicate that professed paganism continued to exist in Ireland in the second half of the sixth century, i.e., for a century at least after Saint Patrick’s death. By that time, however, as I have shown in the sixth lecture, a blending of the old native culture and the newly introduced Christian learning had taken place. And just as two elements in the chemical sense unite to form something that seems to have a nature and virtue all its own and not derived from the quality of either component, so this blending of two traditions in Ireland brought forth almost a new nation, with a character and an individuality that gave it distinction in that age and in the after ages.”[1]
Such a synthesis of Irish pagan traditions with Christianity is demonstrated throughout the thirteenth century text, Acallam na Senórach, in which this process of unification is depicted as occurring during Saint Patrick’s arrival to Ireland.
“At that time the King of Munster gave Cashel to Patrick, son of Calpurn. ‘How shall that be given to us?’ asked Benen. ‘In this way,’ said the king. ‘The cleric himself shall go onto Cloch na Cét “the Stone of the Hundreds”, and whatever he sees of level in Munster in any direction he shall have.’ Patrick went onto the Stone of the Hundreds, and the sun rose before his face so that all was bright on every side. As Patrick placed his foot on the stone eleven thousand demons sprang up from the points of the rock and fled from Saint Patrick into the heavens. Patrick blessed the stone and gave it the gift of bestowing good counsel. He put this blessing on it that an angel of the Lord would traverse it at each time of Nones, and, if nine sons of the True Lord fast on it then, on behalf of the King of Munster, he will be granted his request. On this rock is one of the three perpetual fires, along with the fire of Brigit at Kildare and the fire of Columcille, which will be blessed at the end in Ireland.”[2]
Even the post-humous Christianisation of Irish mythology is a symptom of the totalising aims of the Medieval synthesis of Irish identity past and present. The conversion of Fionn Mac Cumhaill to Christianity, after his foresight of Patrick’s arrival to Ireland, affirms the trend of recontextualization, which much of old Irish folklore was subject to by the Christian scribes whose diligent work survives today. The process of Christianising a nation and the amalgamation of pagan cultures with Christianity is present most explicitly in Irish literature, yet this theme is also present in other European texts, for example–Beowulf.
In Beowulf the entwinement of pagan cultural beliefs with the Christian faith, is a minor theme, exemplified by the following passage, which narrates the death of Beowulf. This contextualisation is of interest to a study of heroism in European literature, as the passing words of the hero are designed to be an occurrence of great tragedy and the way in which it is communicated clearly shows not just the evocative nature of emotion in literature, but also the reasoning behind it – why the death of the hero is a tragedy. Throughout the text Beowulf, in his triumph over Grendel and his mother, and eventual slaying of the dragon demonstrates himself to be a ruler of supreme moral character and capable of upholding the honour of his lineage, hence his death is a loss for the society at large.
“From his neck he unclasped the collar of gold,
Valorous king, to his vassal gave it
With bright-gold helmet, breastplate, and ring,
To the youthful thane: bade him use them in joy.
“Thou art end and remnant of all our race,
The Waegmunding name. For Wyrd hath swept them,
All my line, to the land of doom,
Earls in their glory: I after them go.”
This word was the last which the wise old man
Harboured in heart ere hot death-waves
Of balefire he chose. From his bosom fled
His soul to seek the saints’ reward.”[3]
Even in his final moments, Beowulf conforms to the generous nature of Germanic heroes, spontaneously gifting his vassal a golden collar for his efforts, before reciting his last words. The reference to Wyrd, or Fate survives as a demonstration of the survival of old Germanic pagan beliefs, yet the passage directly refers to the Christian saints and Beowulf’s elevation to heaven through his noble efforts to protect his people. This suggests that pagan religious beliefs had become subjugated in early Christian Germanic societies to Christian religious doctrine, yet persisted in a cultural form for a period of time before their total sublimation or integration into national cultures.
For the Romans and Irish, the influence of priestly heroes like Aeneas and Saint Patrick can be seen to have influenced the ways in which they perceived themselves. Worshipping a priest-like figure that births a new nation from his virtuous deeds, not necessarily on the battlefield but by altering the soul of a nation, or rather, inducing this change upon itself, causing the historical fact to be subjugated to the mythical tale, and thus intertwining the two inextricably. It is from such national mythos that literature may be produced that is worthy of the label of ‘national epic’.
"Throughout Irish history Oisín and Pádraig may be discerned as the dual leaders of the nation – Cú Chulainn and Columcille, Red Hugh O’Donnell and Archbishop Conry, Owen Roe O’Neill and Luke Wadding… All that the race has achieved has sprung either from the Faith of Pádraig or from the spirit of Oisín, the poet-warrior who loved Ireland more than Tír na n-Óg. The Fenian idea, or imaginative patriotism, and the Faith, always have been the two great enthusiasms of Ireland.”[4]
The National Epic & Cultural Pride
If it is understood that the depiction of heroism in a people’s literature is indicative of their values, beliefs and traditions, then the question of Ireland’s national epic is one of great importance. If asked the question today, An Táin Bó Cúailnge is falsely attributed the label of Ireland’s national epic, a title which the texts Acallam na Senórach and An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann are far better candidates. It is unfortunate, however, that these literary works are restricted by a dearth of public knowledge or interest, and are consequently memory-holed by popular Irish culture.
If one were to exclude the Gaelic literary candidates for the Irish national epic, the question of Ireland’s national epic would naturally fall into lap of the architects of the Irish Literary Revival. But an analysis of their works oscillates between the appearance of Anglo-Irish tragedy and indulgent romanticism; such themes mischaracterise not only the idealism of medieval Gaelic literature, but also, in reference to the Irish language, fail to fully embrace authentic Irish identity through the use of the English language.
Joyce falsely asserts the following notion regarding the Irish national epic: “Our national epic has yet to be written, Dr Sigerson says. Moore is the man for it. A knight of the rueful countenance here in Dublin. With a saffron kilt? O'Neill Russell? Oh, yes, he must speak the grand old tongue.”[5] Joyce's satirical remark of the "grand old" Gaelic language as a necessary condition for the creation of an Irish national epic is one of pessimism that is stereotypical of writers during the Irish Literary Revival, choosing their pride in their written English language works over the esteem of Gaelic literature. The attempt to create a Hiberno-English literary tradition that integrates the ideals of Gaelic Ireland into the Anglo-Irish society we live in today was a misguided decision incumbent upon the sympathies of Anglo-Irish writers with the English literary tradition and their unwillingness to commit their authorship to the Irish language.
Therefore, “Sigerson's comment that the Irish national epic had yet to be written implies that all previous attempts had in some way failed to meet the goal, either for formal reasons or for reasons of quality. Sigerson's statement also suggests that a national epic was not to be found in early Irish literature: the medieval heritage was not perceived as including an epic that the nation could compare to the Iliad, the Aeneid, or even Beowulf. Thus, the task remained for the modern age. What would it have meant to write the Irish national epic at the time of the Irish literary revival? For the nationalists—as for ourselves—epic was a value-laden term, a valorising approbation as much as it was the name of a literary genre.”[6]The half-hearted embrace of Gaelic Ireland by the likes of Yeats and Joyce destined the Irish Literary Revival to a cultural significance vastly diminished in capabilities. The cynicism of Ireland’s modern authors towards the Irish language and their exuberant embrace of Gaelic traditions and literary ideals communicated through the English language, while a short-term useful vehicle for the communication of Irish identity, lacks the impact and longevity that, should history have occurred differently, a Gaelic Literary Revival may have had.
The issue is that, by rejecting Gaelic national epics and rejecting the wealth of source material for Irish cultural identity present within them, the foundations of Irish literary history are therefore undermined. Hence, Irish literature in the English language, whilst undoubtedly Irish in character, is incapable of reflecting the Irish soul in as pure a representation. Gaelic literature provides a comprehensive understanding of Irish identity and heroic virtues, Irish literature in English is an imitation that subjects the reader to a myriad of glimpses into the Irish psyche, yet never reaches the same cultural climaxes or insight as its Gaelic equivalent.
English language Irish literature is a phenomenon specific to the Modern world, even in times of Hiberno-Latin scripture, the Irish language reigned supreme amongst the public. Hence the gradual distancing from English-language Irish literature is an important development for the re-Gaelicisation of Ireland. This may be achieved through the translation of Anglo-Irish literature into Irish, so that a degree of authenticity may be added to these texts, however, it is possible that the element which granted these texts their authenticity was the use of the English language, thereby reflecting the debased status of Gaelic Ireland.
The issue with the Modern Irish literary distaste for Medieval Irish literature, the Gaelic language, and the rejection of Ireland’s national literature lies in a misconception that is seldom acknowledged in the characterisation of a nation’s literature. The title of ‘national epic’ is not exclusive, it is a label to be applied to several texts which together are essential for the understanding of a nation’s self-conception of its identity. For example, El Cantar del Mío Cid and Don Quixote de la Macha are both considered to be Spanish national epics, yet each text was written in different time periods and consequently reflect different aspects of Spanish national identity. The same can be argued for the entirety of the surviving Irish medieval manuscripts. Each text, while to a large extent, inseparably interrelated, is representative of an otherwise untouched or unspoken aspect of Irish identity and pursues the mythicising of Irish history and the heroic virtues of Gaelic Ireland.
Contrast, for example, the Fenian Cycle with An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann, both are distinctly nationalist writings when compared to An Táin Bó Cúailnge, yet they explicate different aspects of Irish history and culture. An Leabhar Gabhála Éireann is a historic retelling of the heroic deeds that consecrated the Irish landscape and tells of the migration of the Gaels to a land perhaps older than the Greeks themselves, while the Fenian Cycle acts as the point at which old pagan Irish identity and Christianity metamorphose into the medieval conception of Irish nationality. Therefore, both AnLeabhar Gabhála Éireann and the Fenian Cycle stand out as distinctly national forms of Gaelic literature that, unlike the Ulster-oriented Red Branch Cycle, tell of the entire nation of Ireland in its heroic virtues and rich history. The heroism of Cú Chulainn is not unique to Gaelic Ulster, but is indicative of Gaelic society’s perception of battle through the continuity of heroic themes throughout the Irish mythological cycles. Hence the question as to Ireland’s national epic may be explained through a litany of texts, each containing grand literary works that are indicative of Irish culture in its most pure form.
Yet, in the infertile cultural environment of contemporary European states, Ireland stands out as more Americanised than the rest, a status that provides much resistance against even the notion of a Gaelic literary renaissance.
“Contemporary Irish cultural mores now largely conform–with some remaining light regional touches–to those of mainstream British Isles popular culture. Whatever regional specificity it retains largely pertains to GAA-promoted sports and some North American cultural influences mainly specific to Ireland and Irish America. Thus, the distinctively American flavour of Ireland’s contemporary St. Patrick’s Day celebrations [...] signalling that the U.S.A., with all its works and pomps has become an integral part of what we Irish now are…Thus the U.S.A. seems to many Irish people–especially those with relatives living there–almost like a western expansion of Ireland. Or, conversely, contemporary Ireland could be an eastern extension of the U.S.A.”[7]
Thus, in such an Americanised cultural environment, emphasis should be placed on medieval Irish literature as truly indicative of Irish identity and customs, with the aim of eventually supplanting the dregs of Anglo-American popular culture in Ireland with a specific re-orientation towards Medieval Irish cultural produce as opposed to the works of Yeats or Joyce in modern Irish literature, who for all their worth pale in comparison and significance.
Modern Irish literature is useful in its depiction of Irish history and therefore functions as a tool for the study of history, societal structures, and culture within a time period, which serve to emphasise the concept of Irish identity distinct from both European and British cultures. Medieval Irish literature, by acting as the cornerstone of such a national mythos–encompassing the arrival of the Milesians and the heroism of Cú Chulainn, to the deeds of Fionn Mac Cumhaill and Saint Patrick’s evangelisation of Ireland–acts to catalogue the genesis of Medieval Irish identity.
Conclusion
Gaelic literature, despite its significance to the creation of Irish identity, has today been substituted by Anglo-American cultural produce that functions as the antithesis of the ideal of a Gaelic Ireland. Therefore, a re-examination of the depiction of heroism throughout medieval Irish literature is an essential goal that allows for the further expression of Irish identity and values.
The Irish texts studied throughout this essay “exemplify some of the ways in which Irish myth presents the destiny of the hero who mediates between man and the gods. The world view of these texts is an anthropocentric one: man is the centre of the cosmos, and the fruits of the earth and the workings of the elements are contingent upon the physical and moral excellence of the king – and, in texts where the martial ethic prevails, upon that of the champion. But the hero is subject to constraints from within and without and Otherworld personages intervene at all crucial moments in his career. These interventions may be benevolent or malevolent, reflecting the contradictory aspects of the Otherworld. A benevolent god may function as a progenitor and helper, but a malevolent one will act as a villain and destroyer. The burden of heroism is a heavy one, and is ultimately unenviable. While celebrating the achievements of the hero, Irish myth asserts the precariousness of man’s position in the cosmos.”[8]
The peculiarity of the Irish conception of heroism is one that reaffirms the self-conception of Gaelic and Christian Irish society, and serves to continually re-forge the Irish landscape through heroic deeds that are immortalised in the Irish public consciousness, as facilitated by the Irish Dindsenchas naming tradition. Such a tradition highlights the significance of our national language to the creation of Irish literature and storytelling – as such a phenomenon could hardly arise from an English-speaking Irish society and is a characteristic unique to our national literature. Hence a re-evaluation of Irish literature may contribute to a historical analysis of the development of Irish identity and culture.
Such an example of the historicity of Irish literature is present, not only in the Middle Ages, but even expresses itself in James Joyce’s Dubliners. With particular reference to the story Ivy Day in the Committee Room, as a splendidly accurate portrayal of the early twentieth century Irish political establishment and its memoriam of Charles Stuart Parnell. Therefore, an aspect of authenticity and value can be discovered in Anglo-Irish literature’s portrayal of modern Ireland, yet should always be understood to be a medium to be controlled and assimilated into a renewed Irish language movement.
Through the literary distillation and communication of the inner-mind of the Irish nation, Gaelic literature is undoubtedly a resource of prime importance to the re-Gaelicisation of Ireland. The heroic values professed throughout such an extensive literary tradition is therefore indicative of the soul of Gaelic Ireland and serves as an example to imitate in its Hiberno-English equivalent. As the identity of the Irish nation is inseparable from its language and literature, it may then be concluded that the gradual integration of Gaelic themes, aphorism and language into the works of Irish authors serves as a solution to the Anglo-American cultural sovereignty over modern Ireland.
Thus, the question of the Irish national epic is proved once more, albeit in a far more contextualised manner: what is the Irish national epic? The answer is one inclusive of Gaelic, Hiberno-Latin and Anglo-Irish literary traditions, as whilst often drawing influence from one another, the chronological development of a single Irish literary tradition is suggested to emerge consistently with Gaelic Ireland as its basis. A resurgence of Gaelic literary works and themes is a much-needed aspect of the national revival required for the Irish nation to bear fruit once more, but at this moment, we are only sowing the seeds.
“The question whether the national language is to become wholly extinct like the Cornish, is one which must be decided within the next ten years. There are probably a hundred and fifty thousand households in Ireland at this moment where the parents speak Irish amongst themselves, and the children answer them in English. If a current of popular feeling can be aroused amongst these, the great cause — for great it appears even now to foreigners, and greater it will appear to the future generations of the Irish themselves — of the preservation of the oldest and most cultured vernacular in Europe, except Greek alone, is assured of success, and Irish literature, the production of which — though long dribbling in a narrow channel — has never actually ceased, may again, as it is even now promising to do, burst forth into life and vigour, and once more give that expression which in English seems impossible, to the best thoughts and aspirations of the Gaelic race.”[9]
[1] MacNeill, E., 1920. Phases of Irish History. 2nd ed. Dublin: M. H. Gill & Son, p.222.
[2] Dooley, A. and Roe, H., 2008. Acallam na Senórach. Oxford University Press, p.151.
[3] Gummere, F. and Maclear, A., 2021. Beowulf. 1st ed. Perth: Imperium Press, p.287
[4] De Blácam, A., 1929. Gaelic Literature Surveyed. 2nd ed. Dublin and Cork: Talbot Press, p.69.
[5] Joyce, J., 2000. Ulysses. Penguin Books, p.246.
[6] Tymoczko, Maria. The Irish Ulysses. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. p.55. Available at: http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft5s200743/
[7] Mac Síomóin, T., 2022. The Broken Harp. Nuascéalta Teoranta, pp.97-99.
[8] Ó Cathasaigh, T. (1978). Between God and Man: The Herò of Irish Tradition. The Crane Bag, 2(1/2), 72–79. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30059464
[9] Hyde, D., 1903. A Literary History of Ireland. 3rd ed. London: T. Fisher. Unwin, p.607.